STACK 

ANNEX 


IOURSE  IN 


W.  WJMURRAY. 
1 


HANDBOOK  FOR  TEACHERS. 


A  COURSE  IN 


MANUAL  TRAINING 


FOR 


GRAMMAR  SCHOOLS. 


WITH    ILLUSTRATIONS 


BY 


W.  W.  MURRAY. 


ROCHESTER: 

ROCHESTER  ATHENAEUM  AND  MECHANICS  INSTITUTE. 
SCRANTOM,  WETMORE  &  CO. 


Copyright.  1897 

by  the 

ROCHESTER  ATHEN/EUM  AND  MECHANICS  INSTITUTE 
ROCHESTER. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  DESK  TOP. 


The  desk-top  was  designed  to  meet  the  needs  of 
grammar  and  private  schools.  It  can  be  clamped  to 
an  ordinary  school  desk,  or  a  shelf,  and  be  released 

by  a  single  turn  of  a 
thumb-screw. 

The  desk-top  con-i 
sists  of  a  board  six-i 
teen  inches  wide  and 
twenty-four  inches 
long,  with  a  recess  at 
the  back,  which  is] 
fitted  with  blocks1 
and  racks  of  various 
forms  for  holding  the 
tools  in  their  proper 
places.  It  is  pro- 
vided with  a  stopi 
which  is  used  for 
holding  the  wood 
while  planing.  This 
stop,  when  not  in 
use,  can  be  dropped 
down  flush  with  the  surface,  and  the  top  may  then  be 
used  as  a  drawing  board. 

The  right  hand  end  is  fitted  with  a  shooting-board 


ADJUSTING  DESK  TOP. 


2OGG472 


Manual   Training  Course 


— a  device  for  holding  pieces  of  wood  while  the  edges 
are  being  planed — this  is  provided  with  an  attach- 
ment which  prevents  the  tipping  of  the  plane,  thereby 
insuring  true  work. 

At  the  right  hand, and  attached  to  the  underside, 
is  a  shallow  drawer,  this  is  intended  to  hold  the 
drawing  instruments,  sandpaper-block,  sandpaper  and 

nails.  A  T-square 
is  held  in  place — on 
the  underside  —  by 
means  of  rabbeted 
cleats  and  a  spring. 
The  following  is 
a  list  of  the  tools: 
—  Measuring  rule; 
knife,  plane,  chisel, 
try-square,  marking- 
gauge,  hammer,  nail- 
set,  brad-awl,  gimlet, 
pliers,  clamp,  bench- 
hook,  compasses,  tri- 
angles,  T-square, 
thumb-tacks  and 
sandpaper-block. 
AT  WORK  AT  DESK  TOP.  It  is  not  necessary 

to  provide  a  saw  for  each  desk-top.  A  table  or  shelf 
arranged  with  three  common  mitre  boxes  and  three 
saws  will  answer  for  a  large  class. 


For  Grammar  Schools.  5 

The  following  tools   will  be  required   for  occa- 
sional use: 

3 — 10  inch  back  saws. 

i  — 1 8     "      panel  saw  (i  i  points  to  the  inch). 
3 — 2^  "      screw-drivers. 
3 — y^     "      handled  auger  bits, 
i — 6       "      2nd  cut  flat  file  with  handle, 
i  Washita  oil  stone,  mounted, 
i  Small  oil  can. 

3  Mitre  boxes  2^  inches  wide  inside  by  2^ 
inches  deep. 


MODELS  FOR  DESK  TOP  COURSE. 


Manual  Training  Course 
INTRODUCTION. 


This  hand-book  is  not  intended  as  a  manual  for 
self-instruction,  it  is  simply  an  arrangement  of  facts 
and  suggestions  relating  to  the  tools  and  exercises 
involved  in  this  series  of  models,  to  supplement  notes 
taken  by  the  pupil-teacher,  which,  it  is  hoped,  may 
be  of  some  assistance  to  the  teacher  in  her  efforts  to 
encourage  habits  of  industry  and  observation. 

To  the  teacher  who  aims  at  proficiency,  the 
knowledge  of  the  work,  the  right  use  of  tools,  and 
acquaintance  with  the  materials  used  is  indispens- 
able, and  the  only  way  to  obtain  this  knowledge 
is  by  practical  personal  experience  under  an  in- 
structor. It  cannot  be  acquired  from  books. 

The  course  of  exercises  described  in  this  hand- 
book is  adapted  to  pupils  during  the  last  two  or  three 
years  in  the  grammar  schools.  Courses-,  which  will 
involve  the  use  of  fewer  tools,  can  be  arranged  to 
suit  the  physical  and  mental  capacity  of  children  of 
the  lower  grades. 

Children  love  to  construct,  and  this  points  to  a 
practical  means  of  conveying  instruction.  But  work 
for  children  must  be  of  such  a  nature  as  will  lead 
them  to  feel  that  it  is  real  work,  not  a  pretense  at  it. 
The  course  should  be  a  series  of  useful  articles,  hav- 
ing a  distinct  educational  value. 

In  planning  this  course  the  aim  has  been  to  design 
such  models  as  would  be  of  value  from  the  boy's 


For  Grammar  Schools.  7 

point  of  view;  to  make  each  model  an  article  of  use; 
to  give  practical  applications  of  a  few  geometrical 
problems  to  actual  work,  and  to  afford  the  teacher  a 
means  of  translating  many  perplexing  problems  in 
arithmetic  and  plane  geometry. 

In  the  hands  of  a  conscientious  teacher,  the  work 
will  extend  further  than  the  making  of  models; 
intellectual  and  moral  results  will  be  considered  as 
important  as  mechanical  skill. 

Drawing,  in  order  to  interest  the  boy,  must  show 
some  tangible  results,  therefore,  the  teacher  should 
take  advantage  of  every  opportunity  to  show  the 
value  of  "something''  to  define  the  form  and  propor- 
tions of  the  objects  to  be  made.  All  work  should  be 
done  from  drawings. 

The  hammer  and  pliers  used  in  the  desk-top  work 
were  selected  with  a  view  to  introducing  light  metal 
work. 

NOTES   AND  SUGGESTIONS. 


Ltnnber: — When  ordering  lumber,  write  dimen- 
sions thus:  12  pieces  of  dry  white  pine  ^  in.  by  2^ 
ins.  by  15^2  ins.  Specify  quality,  when  clear  lumber 
is  wanted,  as  follows :  free  from  knots,  shakes  or  sap. 
When  ordering  lumber  for  the  models,  have  the 
wood  cut  TV  inch  wider  than  the  width  as  given 
under  the  head  of  rough  stock,  this  will  allow  for 
planing. 


8  Manual   Training  Course 

Nails: — Nails  with  large  flat  heads  are  known  as 
common  nails.  Nails  used  for  fine  work  have  small 
heads  and  are  called  finis/ting  nails. 

When  ordering  nails,  give  length,  number  of  wire 
and  state  whether  common  or  finishing  nails  are 
wanted.  See  pages  69  and  71. 

Example. — 2  Ibs.  of  3^  inch  finishing  nails  No.  18. 

Screws: — When  ordering  screws,  give  length  of 
screw  and  number  of  wire. 

Example. — 2  doz.  f  inch  screws  No.  6. 

Screws  vary  in  size  from  ^  inch  No.  o  to  6  inch 
No.  30.  See  page  67. 

The  term  number  as  applied  to  screws  and  wire 
nails  refers  to  the  w ire  gauge  or  the  diameter  of  the 
body  of  the  screw  or  nail  just  below  the  head. 

Sandpaper: — Sandpaper  is  sold  by  the  sheet  or 
quire.  No.  i  is  the  grade  used  in  this  course.  For 
further  information  relating  to  sandpaper  see  page 
62. 

Glue: — Use  the  liquid  glue.  Two  or  three  small 
cans  will  answer  for  a  large  class. 

Emery  Cloth: — To  remove  rust  from  the  tools  use 
No.  oo  emery  cloth  and  machine  oil. 

For  the  drawings  and  for  marking  lines  on  the 
wood,  use  a  pencil  of  medium  grade.  It  must  be  kept 
sharp.  Soft  pencils  with  blunt  points  should  not  be 
tolerated. 

Pupils  should  measure  their  wood  to  test  dimen- 
sions before  proceeding  to  work  it  up. 


For   Grammar  Schools.  9 

It  is  not  safe  to  test  the  keenness  of  a  sharpened 
tool  by  running  the  finger  lightly  across  the  edge. 
If  the  edge  appears  white  and  rounded  it  may  be 
regarded  as  dull ;  if  the  edge  is  invisible  when  held 
up  against  the  light,  it  is  sharp. 

The  sharpening  can  be  done  by  a  practical  man, 
at  small  cost. 

Tact  must  be  exercised  in  deciding  the  degree  of 
accuracy  to  be  expected  from  each  individual  pupil. 
Verv  often  what  a  boy  of  ten  years  can  accomplish 
may  be  difficult  for  one  of  twelve.  Be  guided  by 
the  mental  and  physical  powers,  rather  than  the  age. 

Do  not  insist  on  the  repetition  of  the  same  model 
more  than  three  times  at  the  outside.  The  principle 
involved  may  be  given  in  another  form. 

Guard  yourself  against  giving  any  more  help 
than  is  absolutely  necessary. 

Use  technical  terms.  Do  not  say  "  thing"*  for  mark- 
ing-gauge nor  "  business  "  when  you  mean  try-square. 

Insist  on  cleanliness  and  neatness  and  that  each 
tool,  when  not  in  use,  be  kept  in  its  proper  place. 

If  "  chip-carving  "  is  introduced  it  should  be  per- 
mitted only  on  such  articles  as  have  been  constructed 
by  the  pupil. 

When  the  pupil's  work  has  been  "  accepted  "  by 
the  teacher,  a  neat  label  should  be  pasted  on,  and  on 
this  label  should  be  stated  the  number  of  the  model 
and  its  name ;  the  name  and  age  of  the  pupil. 

The  articles  should  be  regarded  as  the  property 
of  the  makers. 


io  Manual  Training  Course 


MODEL  I. 

A  Flower  Pot  Stand. 

The  first  exercise  involves  the  use  of  more  tools 
than  many  of  the  other  models,  but  it  has  been 
placed  first  in  the  series  not  only  because  it  is  the 
easiest,  but  for  the  reason  that  there  are  certain  prin- 
ciples which  lie  at  the  foundation  of  manual  training 
that  should  be  taught  at  the  beginning. 

It  gives  the  typical  use  of  the  most  important 
tools,  and  it  shows  the  pupil  the  significance  of  accu- 
racy of  measurement. 

The  drawing  for  this  model  and  model  No.  2  may 
be  prepared  for  the  pupil,  or  by  him,  according  to 
the  discretion  of  the  teacher. 

The  teacher  can  simplify  the  work  and  avoid  con- 
fusion, by  giving  the  pupil  the  material  necessary  for 
the  two  standards  only,  which  should  be  completed 
before  giving  out  the  pieces  for  the  slats. 

Tools  used: — Rule,  plane,  try-square,  compasses, 
knife,  file,  saw,  hammer,  nail  set,  and  centering  clamp.* 

Rough  stock: — 4  pcs.of  pine  ^  in.  by  i  in.  by  12^2  ins. 
"  "     —2     "          "     ]£  in.  by  I  %  in.  by  6  ins. 

Nails: — 16  nails,  y2  in.  No.  20. 

*  The  centering  clamp  is  a  device  for  holding  the  standard  at  right 
angles  to  a  line  from  which  the  curved  line  is  struck. 


For  Grammar  Schools. 


1 1 


Flower    Pot  Stand. 


il 


F,=)l 


1 2  Manual   Training  Course 

MODEL  H. 

A  Form. 

This  is  a.  form  upon  which  the  strips  for  the  curved 
cross-pieces  in  model  No.  3  are  bent  —  after  soaking 
in  water  —  and  secured  until  dry. 

To  find  the  center  from  which  to  describe  the 
curved  lines,  follow  the  method  shown  in  Fig.  2. 
Draw  the  line  H  K,  Fig.  2,  to  equal  line  A  B,  Fig.  3. 
Bisect  H  K  in  L.  Let  LM  equal  C  D,  Fig.  3.  Bisect 
M  H  and  M  K,  and  produce  the  bisecting  lines  until 
they  meet  in  P.  With  P  as  a  center  and  P  M  the 
radius,  draw  the  curve  H  M  K. 

The  radius  for  the  concave  edge  of  the  form  will 
be  the  distance  from  G  to  D,  Fig.  3,  less  than  the 
radius  P  M,  Fig.  2. 

In  order  to  make  this  problem  interesting  and 
clearly  understood,  the  teacher  might  have  the  pupil 
make  any  three  points — not  in  a  straight  line — on  the 
blackboard,  then  show  how  to  locate  the  center  from 
which  to  draw  a  circle  that  will  pass  through  the 
three  given  points. 

This  problem  should  be  worked  out  on  heavy  paper 
or  card-board.  The  figure  may  be  cut  out  and  used 
as  a  pattern  for  drawing  the  lines  on  the  piece  of 
wood  intended  for  the  pupil's  model. 

Tools  used: — Knife  and  file. 

Rough  stock : — i  piece  of  pine  */£  in.  by  2^  in.  by 
12  in. 


For  Grammar  Schools. 


14  Manual  Training  Course 

MODEL  HL 

Frame  for  a  Vine. 

This  frame  is  made  of  thin  basswood.  The  up- 
rights are  three  narrow  pieces  fastened  together  at 
the  base  with  fine  copper  wire. 

The  method  of  joining  the  parts  at  the  junction  of 
the  uprights  and  cross-piece  is  termed  halving,  or 
half-lap  joint,  as  shown  in  isometric  view,  Fig.  4. 

Inasmuch  as  this  is  the  pupil's  first  lesson  in  draw- 
ing, he  need  not  attempt  to  make  a  drawing  of  the 
completed  piece,  but  merely  draw  two  views  of  the 
upright  as  in  Fig.  5.  After  the  drawing  has  been 
completed,  the  pupil  should  be  given  the  material 
necessary  for  the  part  drawn.  When  the  upright 
pieces  are  cut  out,  fastened  together  and  the  lower 
end  pointed  —  as  shown  in  the  drawing  —  the  pupil 
may  make  the  drawing  for  the  cross-pieces  as  in  Figs. 
6  and  7.  The  pieces  should  be  marked  out,  cut 
to  the  proper  length  and  ends  notched,  but  the  joints 
must  not  be  cut  until  the  pieces  are  dry  and  have 
been  removed  from  the  form. 

Tools  used: — Try-square,  knife  and  pliers. 

Rough  stock : — 3  pieces  of  basswood  ^  in.  by  ^  in. 

by  20  in. 
"  "  —i  piece  of  basswood  y&  in.  by  3/£  in. 

by  12  in. 
"  "  —i  piece  of  basswood  ^  in.  by  3^  in. 

by  7  in. 

NOTE. — For  a  description  of  the  method  of  bending  wood,  see 
page  30. 


For   Grammar  Schools. 


F,c,.4. 


Detail    of    Upright  and 
Cross    Piece      for  Vine      Frame 


tic 


1 6  Manual   Training   Course 


MODEL  IV. 

Hexagonal  Back  for  Calendar, 

The  hexagon  is  made  of  thin  basswood  and  is 
used  as  a  back  for  a  small  calendar.  The  pupil  should 
make  a  drawing  of  this  model,  showing  two  views  as 
in  Fig.  8.  To  construct  the  hexagon,  draw  a  circle 
5  in.  in  diameter,  set  off  the  radius  around  it  and  join 
the  points,  as  in  Fig.  9.  The  radius  of  a  circle  goes 
around  the  circumference  as  a  chord  six  times. 

The  calendar  is  fastened  to  the  hexagon  with  the 
aid  of  narrow  ribbon. 

Tools  used : — Compasses,  knife,  gimlet  or  ^  in.  bit, 
and  plane,  which  is  used  to  smooth  the  edges. 

Rough  stock : — i  piece  of  basswood  y%  in.  by  $y&  in. 
by  sJ/8  in. 


For  Grammar  Sc/iools. 


Ficj  Q, 


1 8  Manual  Training  Course 

MODEL  V. 

A  Bandilore. 

The  origin  of  the  bandilore  is  unknown,  though 
some  say  it  was  invented  to  amuse  an  East  Indian 
princess.  It  was  brought  in  1790  from  Bengal  to 
England,  where  it  became  quite  fashionable  under 
the  name  of  Quiz.  Moore  says  that  his  earliest  verses 
were  composed  on  the  use  of  this  toy.  The  bandilore 
consists  of  two  discs  and  a  hub,  which  are  joined  at 
the  center,  and  having  a  string  wound  between  the 
discs.  The  player  takes  one  end  of  the  string  and 
allows  the  bandilore  to  fall,  revolving  as  the  string 
unwinds.  Just  before  it  reaches  the  end  of  the  string 
he  gives  it  a  quick  jerk  upwards,  and  the  spin  it  has 
acquired  will  then  wind  the  string  in  the  opposite 
direction  and  cause  the  toy  to  ascend.  The  discs  are 
made  of  thin  basswood  and  the  grooved  hub  between 
them  is  of  pine. 

As  the  circles  of  this  exercise  are  marked  from  a 
pattern  which  leaves  nothing  to  indicate  the  centres 
of  discs,  it  is  necessary,  before  the  model  can  be  com- 
pleted, to  lay  this  aside  and  take  up  the  next  exer- 
cise. The  discs  are  secured  to  the  hub  with  the  aid 
of  glue  and  nails. 

The  pupil  should  make  a  drawing  showing  a  side 
view  and  section,  as  in  Fig.  10. 

Tools  used: — Knife,  rile,  and  hammer. 

Rough  stock: — 2  pcs.of  basswood  J/s  in. by  4  in. by  4  in. 
"  "  — i  piece  of  pine  YQ  in.  thick  by  i  in. 
by  i  in. 

Nails: — 4,  ^  inch  nails,  No.  20. 

The  Handle  for  Bandilore.  Make  drawing  of 
handle,  as  in  Fig.  11,  which  shows  the  different 
stages  in  the  formation  of  a  round. 

Tools  used : — Knife,  file,  and  brad-awl. 

Rough  stock:- -\  pee.  of  poplar  y2  in. by  ^  in. by  4  ins. 


For  Grammar  Schools. 


D      O      O 


2O  Manual   Training  Course 


MODEL  VI. 

A  Centering  Gauge. 

The  centering-gauge  is  constructed  for  the  pur- 
pose of  locating  the  centers  of  discs  in  Model  No.  5. 

The  drawing  should  be  made  full  size,  and  show 
two  views,  as  in  Fig.  12.  The  method  of  construct- 
ing the  angle  in  the  stock  of  the  centering-gauge  is 
shown  in  Fig.  13. 

The  blade  is  secured  to  the  stock  by  gluing  and 
nailing  with  round  head  brass  nails. 

Tools  used. — Plane,  try-square,  compasses,  knife, 
file,  saw,  awl,  and  hammer. 

Rough  stock: — i  piece  %  in.  by  2^  ins.  by  6  ins. 
"  "  — i  piece  y±  in.  by  i  in.  by  7  ins.,  pine. 

Nails: — y2  in.  No.  18,  round  head  brass  nails.* 

*Escutcheon  pins. 


For   Grammar  ScJiools. 


21 


FTq  It. 


22  Manual   Training  Course 

MODEL  VII. 

A  Plumb  Rule. 

The  plumb-rule  is  a  narrow  board  with  parallel 
edges  having  a  straight  line  drawn  through  the 
middle,  and  a  string  carrying  a  metal  weight  attached 
at  the  upper  end  of  the  line.  It  is  used  by  brick- 
layers, carpenters,  etc.,  for  determining  a  vertical. 
The  metal  weight  attached  to  the  end  of  a  plumb- 
line  is  called  a  plumb-bob. 

Level  is  the  term  applied  to  surfaces  that  are 
parallel  to  that  of  still  water  or  perpendicular  to  the 
direction  of  the  plumb-line. 

The  simplest  form  of  a  leveling  instrument  is  that 
of  a  straight-edge,  and  plumb-rule  united  in  the  form 
of  a  letter  L;  they  must  be  exactly  perpendicular  to 
each  other,  then,  when  the  plumb-rule  is  vertical  the 
other  ruler  is  horizontal  or  level. 

The  spirit  level  shows  the  exact  level  by  means  of 
a  bubble  of  air. 

The  plumb-rule  is  a  very  important  tool,  and 
great  care  should  be  taken  to  make  it  perfectly 
parallel.  The  plumb-bob  is  of  lead,  and  the  guard 
near  the  base  and  in  front  of  the  cord  is  of  brass  wire. 

Make  the  drawing  half  or  three-quarter  size,  show- 
ing two  views,  as  in  Fig.  14.  In  drawing  the  parallel 
lines,  which  represent  the  edges  of  the  plumb-rule, 
use  compasses  and  ruler,  and  follow  the  method 
shown  in  Fig.  15. 

Fig.  16  shows  the  dimensions  and  shape  of  the 
wire  guard. 


For  Gramuiar  Schools. 


Plumb  Rul«. 


24  Manual  Training   Course 

Use  heavy  thread  for  the  line.  The  bob  should  be 
of  lead  and  weigh  about  an  ounce. 

Tools  used: — Plane,  marking-gauge,  try-square, 
compasses,  knife,  file  and  pliers. 

Rough  stock: — i  piece  of  pine  y2  in.  by  2^  ins.  by 
15  ins. 

Wire: — One  piece  of  No.  19  brass  spring  wire 
2  ins.  long. 


MODEL  VIII. 

A  Bench  Hook. 

The  bench-hook  is  a  tool  similar  to  that  used  in 
the  desk-top  outfit.  In  the  drawing  for  this  model 
the  pupil  should  be  taught  to  construct  the  rectangle 
with  the  compasses  and  ruler  as  in  Fig.  18.  Make 
the  drawing  half  or  three  quarter  size,  as  in  Fig.  17. 

Tools  used: — Plane,  saw,  gimlet,  screw-driver  and 
chisel. 

Rough  stock: — I   piece  of  pine  }&  in.  by  4  ins.  by 

8^  ins. 
"          "     — i  piece  of  pine  ^  in.  by  i^  ins.  by 


74  ma. 
Screws: — 4  screws  ^  in.,  No.  6. 


For  Grammar  Schools. 


Bench     HooK. 


Rq  18. 


26  Manual   Training  Course 

MODEL  IX. 

A  Window  Screen. 

The  drawing  of  this  model,  which  should  be  full 
size,  need  only  show  two  views  as  in  Fig-.  19.  The 
upright  pieces  in  this  frame,  as  in  sash,  doors,  blinds, 
and  panel  work  are  called  stiles,  the  horizontal  pieces 
are  called  rails.  The  method  of  joining  the  stiles 
and  rails  of  this  model,  by  cutting  half  the  depth  of 
the  wood  away  from  each,  is  termed  half-lapping,  or 
the  half-lap  joint.  See  isometric  view  of  joint  in 
Fig.  20. 

The  manner  of  joining  the  stiles  and  rails  of  sash, 
doors,  and  blinds  is  known  as  the  mortise  and  tenon 
joint. 

In  marking  out  the  lines  for  the  joints  gauge  from 
the  face  side. 

The  face  sides  should  be  "  in  and  up" — /.  i\,  next 
to  the  wire  screen. 

The  joints  are  screwed  from  the  back  with  ^  inch 
screws,  No.  5. 

Before  inserting  the  screws  the  frame  is  placed 
in  a  small  cleated  board,  and  the  joints  drawn  to- 
gether by  means  of  wedges. 

The  narrow  band  that  covers  the  edges  of  the 
wire  screen  is  mitred  at  the  corners  and  fastened  to 
the  frame  with  ^  inch  nails.  Fig.  21  is  an  isometric 
view  of  a  section  of  the  band,  showing  the  method  of 
marking  out  lines  for  the  mitre. 

Tools  used: — Plane,  try-square,  gauge,  saw,  chisel, 
gimlet,  screw-driver,  knife  and  hammer. 


For  Grammar  Schools. 


27 


Window   Sc 


fl 


28  Manual  Training  Course 

Rough  stock: — 2  pieces    of    pine,   ^    in.  by    i    in. 

by  1 1  ins. 
"  2  pieces    of    pine,   ^    in.  by    I    in. 

by  9  ins. 
2  pieces  of  basswood,  y&  in.  by  y% 

in.  by  10  ins. 
"  2  pieces  of  basswood,  j/6  in.  by  y% 

in.  by  8  ins. 

Screws: — 12  screws  ^  inch,  No.  5. 
Nails: — 14  nails  ^  inch,  No.  20. 
Wire  screen. —  I  piece  6S/Q  ins.  by  8^  ins. 

MODEL  X. 

A  Key  Board. 

This  model  is  made  ot  thin  basswood  and  round 
head  brass  nails. 

The  drawing  may  be  made  of  the  separate  parts 
as  in  Figs.  22  and  23,  or  in  the  case  of  the  more  apt 
pupils  a  drawing  may  be  made  of  the  completed 
piece  as  in  Fig.  24. 

The  curved  lines  of  the  arrow  head  are  drawn 
freehand.  After  the  arrow  has  been  completed,  a 
full-sized  drawing  of  the  shield  should  be  made  on  a 
separate  piece  of  paper,  then  this  may  be  cut  out 
and  used  as  a  pattern  to  mark  out  lines  on  the  wood. 

The  arrow  and  shield  are  fastened  together  with 
glue  and  round  head  brass  nails. 

Tools  used: — Try-square,  compasses,  knife,  file  and 
hammer. 

Rough  stock: — I  piece  of  basswood  ^  in.  by  3^2  in. 

by  4^  inches. 

"         "       —i  piece  of  basswood  ^  in.  by  i  ^  ins. 
by  10*^  ins. 

Brass  Nai/s: — 2  round  head  y2  in.  long,  No.  18. 
—4       "         "       y%  in.  long,  No.  18. 


For   Grammar  Schools. 


29 


Key    Board. 


Fiej.  24-. 


3<D  Manual  Training  Course 

MODEL  XL 

A  Nail  Box. 

The  drawing  of  this  model,  which  may  be  to 
scale  y2  or  ^,  should  show  three  views.  In  nailing 
the  sides  and  ends  together  use  ^  inch  nails,  and 
for  the  bottom  use  y&  in.  nails.  The  handle  is  of  ash, 
and  is  secured  to  its  place  with  five  round  head  brass 
nails  in  each  end.  Before  attempting  to  bend  the 
handle  to  its  place  it  should  be  placed  in  water  for 
a  few  minutes,  or  until  it  seems  quite  pliable. 

Tools  used: — Plane,  try-square,  saw,  brad-awl,  ham- 
mer and  nail  set. 

Rough  stock: — 2  pieces  of  pine,  ^  in.  by  2  ins.  by 

9  ins. 
"         "      ~3  pieces  of  pine  ^  in.  by  2  ins.  by 

$y2  ins. 
"         "       —i  piece  of  pine  */£  in.  by  5 ^  ins.  by 

8}^  ins. 
"         "      —i  piece  of  ash,  ^  in.  by  ^  in.  by 

12  ins. 

Nails:^y2  in.  No.  20,  and  ^  in.  No.  18. 
*  Brass  Nails: — 10  round  head  brass  nails,   ^   in. 
long,  No.  1 8. 

*  Escutcheon  pins. 

Large  pieces  of  wood  are  boiled  or  steamed  be- 
fore bending.  The  method  of  bending  wood  depends 
upon  the  size  of  the  piece  and  the  kind  of  wood,  hard 
wood  requiring  longer  boiling  or  steaming.  A  piece 
of  ash,  say  2  ins.  by  4  ins.  in  cross  section,  would 
require  about  six  hours  steaming  with  a  low  pressure 
of  moist  or  wet  steam,  but  it  would  not  suffer  dam- 
age if  steamed  for  a  day.  If  the  wood  is  steamed 
too  much  it  loses  its  elasticity  and  will  pucker  on  the 
inside  surface  of  the  bend  when  in  the  form  or  bend- 


For   Grammar  Schools. 


Nail    Box. 


32  Manual  Training   Course 

ing  block.     Pieces  not  over  half  an  inch  thick  may 
be  bent  after  steaming  them  half  an  hour. 

One  method  of  bending  wood,  after  steaming,  is 
to  fasten  on  the  outside  or  convex  side  of  the  piece, 
an  iron  strap  that  will  prevent  it  from  stretching. 
The  piece  with  the  strap  on  the  outside  is  laid  on  the 
form  or  forming  piece ;  this  is  then  secured  to  an 
apparatus  called  a  winch.  The  winch  is  provided 
with  a  rope  whose  ends  have  two  hooks  which  are 
engaged  in  the  eyes  of  the  strap,  and  by  operating 
the  winch  the  piece  is  bent  to  shape. 


MODEL  XII. 

Winding  Strips. 

The  drawing  should  show  two  views  as  in  Fig.  25. 

The  winding  strips  are  two  parallel  pieces  with 
straight  edges,  used  for  testing  the  accuracy  of  plane 
surfaces. 

Winding  is  a  term  applied  by  joiners  to  a  surface 
which  is  twisted  so  that  all  its  parts  do  not  lie  in  the 
same  plane.  To  test  whether  the  surface  is  reallv 
true,  the  winding  strips  are  laid,  one  on  each  end  of 
the  piece  of  work.  If  the  surface  is  true,  the  upper 
edges  of  the  rulers  will  be  found  to  be  in  the  same 
plane.  Fig.  26  shows  the  application  of  the  winding 
strips. 

Tools  used: — Plane,  gauge,  and  */(  inch  bit. 

Rough  stock: — i   piece   of   black-walnut  }£  in.  by 

1 1/4  ins.  by  12  ins. 

—  i   piece  of  cherry  ^  in.  by  i^  ins. 
by  12  ins. 


For  Grammar  Schools. 


33 


Winding    Strips. 


G 


34  Manual  Training  Course 


MODEL 

Wall  Bracket. 

Designs  for  wall  brackets  are  numerous.  Some  are 
merely  pieces  of  wood,  cut  as  a  shelf  to  fit  a  corner 
with  or  without  more  support  than  nails  driven  into 
the  wall,  or  they  may  be  made  very  ornamental  and 
tasteful,  according  to  one's  skill  and  patience. 

This  simple  form  is  introduced  to  show  the  prin- 
ciples on  which  they  are  made.  The  drawing  should 
show  three  views :  top  view,  front  view  and  side 
view  as  shown  in  Figs.  27,  28  and  29.  The  outline 
of  shelf  support  may  be  drawn  freehand,  see 
a  Fig.  29. 

Tools  used: — Plane,  try-square,  compasses,  knife, 
file,  y±  inch  bit,  hammer  and  nail-set. 

Rough  stock: — i    piece  of  pine  */£  in.  by  3^  ins. 

by  8  ins. 
"         "     — i  piece  of  pine  ^  in.  by  3^  ins.  by 

3^  ins. 
"         ''      —i  piece  of  pine  ^  in.  by  i^  ins.  by 

3X  ins. 
Nails: — 3  nails  ^  in.  No.  18 — through  back  into 

shelf. 

"   — i   nail  y^  in.  No.  20 — through  shelf  into 
support. 


For  Grammar  Schools. 


35 


Wall     Bracket. 


Fiq  28 


36  Manual  Training  Coiirse 


MODEL  XIV. 

A  Triangle. 

This  exercise  is  a  30°  and  60°  triangle.  Used  for 
drawing  purposes.  Two  views  of  this  model  are 
shown  in  Fig.  30.  To  construct  the  triangle  the 
pupil  should  follow  the  method  shown  in  Fig.  31. 

Draw  line  AC,  Fig.  31,  to  equal  GH,  Fig.  30. 
Bisect  AC  in  B.  With  B  as  a  centre  and  radius  AB, 
draw  arc  CD.  With  centre  C  and  same  radius  cut 
this  arc  in  D.  Draw  AD,  DAC=3O°. 

To  draw  a  perpendicular  to  line  AC  from  point 
C.  With  BC  as  a  radius  and  D  as  a  centre  draw  an 
arc  over  C,  and  draw  a  line  through  BD,  producing 
it  to  meet  this  arc  in  E.  Join  CE,  and  CE  is  the 
perpendicular  required. 

Tools  used: — Compasses,  knife,  plane  and  %  in.  bit. 

Rough  stock: — I  piece  of  maple  ^  in.  by  4  ins. 
by  7  ins. 


For  Grammar  Schools. 


37 


3O  \  6O    TrianqU 


38  Mamcal   Training  Course 


MODEL  XV. 

A  45:>  Triangle. 

The  45°  triangle  is  made  of  the  same  material  as 
model  No.  14.  Used  for  drawing  purposes.  To 
construct  this  triangle,  draw  line  AC,  Fig.  33.  to 
equal  EF,  Fig.  32.  Bisect  AC  in  B.  With  B  as  a 
centre  and  AB  as  a  radius  describe  a  semi-circle. 
Connect  DA  and  DC,  DAC=45°. 

Tools  used: — Compasses,  knife,  plane  and  bit. 

Rough  stock: — I  piece  of  maple  *<&  in.  by  4  ins. 
by  7  ins. 

In  ordering  material  for  the  triangles  it  will  be 
well  to  furnish  a  pattern,  cut  to  the  right  shape,  but 
about  y&  inch  wider  and  longer  than  the  finished 
model. 


For  Grammar  Schools. 


39 


Trionql*. 


4O  Manual  Training  Course 


MODEL  XVI. 

A  T-Square. 

The  T-square  is  constructed  of  the  same  material 
as  the  triangles.  The  stock  is  ^  in.  by  i^  ins.  by  6 
ins.  and  the  blade  is  y&  in.  by  i^  ins.  by  16  ins.  The 
blade  is  secured  to  the  stock  with  the  aid  of  glue  and 
round  head  brass  nails. 

Tools  used: — Plane,  try-square,  gauge,  saw,  chisel, 
file,  y±  in.  bit,  and  hammer. 

Rough  stock: — i  piece  of  maple  ^  in.  by  \y2  ins.  by 

\6}/2  ins. 
"         "      —i  piece  of  maple  ^  in.  by   \y2  ins. 

by  6^  ins. 
Nails: — 5,  ^  in.  brass  nails,  No.  18. 


For  Grammar  Schools, 


42  Manual   Training  Course 


MODEL  XVII. 

Fancy  Box. 

This  model  is  made  of  thin  basswood.  The  lines 
are  drawn  freehand.  The  pupil  should  make  a  draw- 
ing showing  a  view  of  the  side  of  the  box  as  in  Fig. 
34,  and  a  section  showing  position  of  the  bottom  as 
in  Fig.  35.  An  isometric  view  is  shown  in  Fig.  36. 

The  bottom  of  the  box  is  made  of  the  same  ma- 
terial as  the  sides,  and  is  fastened  to  its  place  with 
the  aid  of  four  narrow  strips  of  paper  and  glue.  The 
corners  are  held  together  with  "  baby"  ribbon. 

Tools  used: — Knife  and  gimlet. 

Rough  stock: — 4  pieces  of  basswood  ^  in.  by  4  ins. 

by  4j^$  ins. 

"  —  i  piece  of  basswood  y&  in.  by  3^ 

ins.  by  3^  ins. 

Ribbon: — 2^3  yards. 


For   Grammar  Schools. 


43 


Fiq.  34. 


Ficj  35. 


44  Manual  Training  Coiirse 

MODEL  XVffl. 

A  Sun-Dial. 

The  dial  consists  of  a  piece  of  thin  basswood  cut 
out  in  the  form  of  an  octagon  ;  this  is  stiffened  by 
means  of  a  cleat  fastened  to  the  back.  The  dial  is 
held  to  the  proper  angle  by  the  triangular  piece  ay 
Fig.  37.  The  circumference  of  the  circle  on  the  face 
of  the  dial  is  divided  into  twenty-four  equal  parts, 
numbered  from  one  to  twelve,  twice  over,  as  in  Fig.  38. 
In  the  centre  is  a  fixed  straight  post  called  a  style, 
which  must  be  perpendicular  to  the  face  of  the  dial. 
The  accuracy  of  the  dial  depends  on  this,  and  on 
its  being  placed  so  that  the  style  points  in  the  same 
direction  as  the  earth's  axis.  This  may  be  brought 
about  by  fixing  the  dial  so  that  the  angle  between 
the  horizontal  line  BC,  Fig.  37,  and  the  style  just 
equals  the  latitude  of  the  place.  This  can  be  done 
by  finding  the  latitude  on  a  map,  then  deducting  this 
from  the  number  of  degrees  in  a  right  angle  gives 
the  angle  for  the  piece  a,  Fig.  37.  The  angle  may  be 
constructed  with  the  aid  of  a  protractor.  The  lines 
for  the  triangular  piece  a,  Fig.  37,  should  be  drawn 
on  the  wood  as  in  Fig.  40. 

The  method  of  constructing  the  octagon  is  shown 
in  Fig.  39. 

After  the  model  is  finished  it  may  be  fixed  in 
position.  The  base  must  be  horizontal,  and  the  dial 
placed,  with  the  aid  of  a  compass,  so  that  the  style 
points  due  north. 


For  Grammar  Schools. 


45 


Fig  ,33 


Fig.  ,38 


46  Manual  Training  Course 

Another  method  of  finding  the  proper  angle,  and 
fixing  the  dial  in  position,  is  to  drill  a  small  hole 
through  the  plate,  close  to  the  style,  and  then,  on  a 
clear  night,  the  dial  is  so  placed  that  by  looking 
through  this  hole  the  north  star  is  brought  into  line 
with  the  style. 

"  With  warning  hand  I  mark  time's  rapid  flight 
From  life's  glad  morning  to  the  solemn  night ; 
Yet,  through  the  dear  God's  love.  I  also  show 
There's  light  above  me  by  the  shade  below." — j.  G.  w. 

Sun-dials  are  now  seldom  met  with,  though  in 
some  parts  of  Europe  we  may  still  occasionally  see 
one  fixed  to  the  south  side  of  an  old  church  or  stand- 
ing as  an  ornament  in  the  garden,  but  at  one  time 
were  much  more  common,  and  before  clocks  were 
invented  were  almost  the  only  means  of  measuring 
time  with  any  approach  to  accuracy.  The  instru- 
ment has  been  in  use  from  the  earliest  times.  The 
Hebrews  were  acquainted  with  it  at  least  seven  cen- 
turies before  the  Christian  era.  In  the  book  of  Isaiah 
we  find  mention  of  the  sun-dial,  "Behold  I  will  bring 
again  the  shadow  of  the  degrees,  which  is  gone  down 
in  the  sun-dial  of  Ahaz,  ten  degrees  backward.  So 
the  sun  returned  ten  degrees,  by  which  degrees  it 
was  gone  down  " — ISAIAH  xxxviii :  8. 

In  England  down  as  late  as  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury no  mathematical  treatises  were  so  common  as 
those  on  dialling.  The  dial,  of  course,  labors  under 
the  disadvantage  of  not  being  of  any  use  in  cloudy 
weather  or  after  sunset. 


For  Grammar  Schools.  47 

It  registers  only  the  hours  of  sunshine,  and  hence 
in  very  early  times  it  was  customary  to  calculate  the 
hours  of  night  from  some  prominent  star.  Arago 
tells  us  that  the  Abbot  of  Cluny  consulted  the  stars 
when  he  wished  to  know  the  time  for  midnight  pray- 
ers ;  at  other  times  a  monk  remained  awake,  and  in 
order  to  measure  the  lapse  of  time,  repeated  certain 
psalms,  having  learnt  by  experiment  how  many  he 
could  say  in  an  hour. 

There  was  also  a  kind  of  water  clock  called 
Clepsydra  (watcr-stealer),  which  was  a  vase  filled  with 
water  with  a  small  opening  in  the  bottom  through 
which  the  water  dripped  drop  by  drop  into  a  vessel 
beneath,  which  was  thus  said  to  steal  the  water. 
The  side  of  the  vase  was  divided  into  spaces  by  lines, 
and  the  height  of  the  water  in  it  marked  the  time. 

Instruments  like  our  hour-glasses  were  also  used, 
in  which  the  time  was  measured  by  the  running  out 
of  sand. 

King  Alfred,  the  Great,  is  said  to  have  marked 
time  by  the  gradual  burning  down  of  candles  col- 
ored in  rings. 

Tools  used: — Compasses,  knife,  plane,  try-square, 
file,  brad-awl,  gimlet  and  hammer. 

Rough  stock: — i  piece  of  basswood  %  in.  by  7  ins. 

by  7  ins. 
"          "     — i  piece  of  pine  ^  in.  by  5^  ins.  by 

5^5  ins. 

—3  pieces  of  pine  ^  in.  by   i  in.  by 
7*/2  ins. 

Nails: — 1/2  inch,  No.  20,  and  ^  inch,  No.  18. 


48 


Manual   Training  Course 


HALF-ROUND  FILE.  SOCKET  FIRMER  CHISEL.  TANG  FIRMER  CHISEL. 


For   Grammar  Schools.  49 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  TOOLS. 
Measuring  Role. 

The  rule  is  a  straight  piece  of  wood,  twelve  inches 
long,  and  graduated  to  eighths  and  sixteenths.  It 
serves  as  a  guide  in  drawing  straight  lines,  and 
measuring  off  short  distances. 

The  English  foot  (in  use  in  the  United  States) 
contains  12  inches  and  is  equal  to  30.48  centimeters. 
It  seems  to  have  lengthened  since  the  time  of  Henry 
VII.  The  feet  in  use  in  different  countries  before 
the  introduction  of  the  metric  system,  varied  from 
9  to  21  inches. 

The  standard  is  kept  at  Washington  and  was 
copied  from  the  English  standard  which  is  kept  at 
London. 

In  teaching  pupils  the  use  of  the  rule  in  measuring' 
and  marking  off  tlieir  work,  be  careful  to  impress  them,  that 
in  any  undertaking,  preparation  is  an  important  factor 
in  arriving  at  accuracy — to  refrain  from  guessing  and  all 
guess  work. 

Lowell  has  told  us,  that — 

"  Folks  that  worked  thorough  was  the  folks  that  thiiv, 
But  bad  work  follers  ye  ez  long's  ye  live. 
Ye  can't  get  rid  on't  just  as  sure  as  sin, 
Its  allers  askin'  to  be  done  agin." 


50  Manual  Training  Course 

Planes. 

The  plane  is  a  tool  for  smoothing,  truing  and  fin- 
ishing woodwork.  The  essential  parts  of  a  plane  are 
a  stock  or  frame  of  wood  -or  metal,  having  a  smooth, 
concave  or  convex  sole  or  face,  and  a  throat  in  which  is 
placed  a  steel  cutter  called  the  cutter  or  bit.  Various 
•devices  are  used  to  keep  the  cutter  in  position  in  the 
stock,  the  most  simple  being  a  wedge  oi  wood. 
Planes  are  made  in  a  great  variety  of  shapes  and 
sizes,  and  range  in  size  from  3  to  30  inches  in  length. 
Nearly  all  are  distinguished  by  names  having  refer- 
ence to  the  'particular  kind  of  work  for  which  they 
are  designed,  as  the  smoot  king-plane,  jack-plane,  fore- 
plane,  jointer-plane,  block-plane  and  a  great  variety  of 
planes  for  forming  mouldings,  etc. 

The  Japanese  planes  are  small  with  no  handles. 
The  planes  are  shorter,  lighter,  and  the  stock  shal- 
lower than  ours,  being  generally  not  more  than  one 
inch  deep.  To  plane  a  piece  of  wood  they  lay  it  on 
the  ground,  squat  down,  "hold  it  fast  with  their  toes, 
and  work  the  plane  by  drawing  it  with  both  hands 
toward  them. 

Some  of  their  tools  appear  to  be  mere  children's 
toys;  for  instance  they  have  a  smoothing  plane  two 
and  one-half  inches  long,  one  inch  broad,  and  half 
an  inch  thick. 

Block  Plane. 

This  tool  is  used  chiefly  for  pilaning  across  the 
ends  of  boards,  or  of  blocks  (across  the  grain)  and  in 


For  Grammar  Schools.  51 

fitting  close  joints.  On  small  work,  if  the  wood  is 
soft  and  straight  grained,  the  block-plane  may  be 
used  as  a  smoothing-plane  for  planing  with  the  grain. 


The  pitch  of  the  cutter  is  less  than  in  ordinary 
bench  planes,  and  the  cutter  is  used  with  the  bevel 
uppermost  at  the  cutting  edge,  to  further  aid  in  cut- 
ting across  the  grain  of  the  wood.  The  cutter  is 
clamped  in  place  by  means  of  the  lever  which  is 
attached  to  cap.  The  pressure  exerted  by  this  lever 
is  regulated  by  turning  the  slotted  screw,  near  lower 
end  of  cap. 

To  release  cap  and  cutter  move  lever  to  the  right. 
The  lever,  when  in  position  to  hold  the  cutter  to  its 
place,  should  be  parallel  with  side  of  plane. 

It  sometimes  happens  in  replacing  cutter  and  cap, 
that  difficulty  is  experienced  in  bringing  the  lever 
back  to  its  proper  position.  This  is  usually  because 
the  tooth  on  inner  end  of  lower  lever  has  not  found 
its  place  in  the  groove  on  underside  of  cutter. 

The  thickness  of  shaving  is  regulated  by  means 
of  the  thumb-screw  and  lever  beneath  the  upper  end 


52  Manual  Training  Course 

of  cutter.    Turning  the  thumb-screw  to  the  left  forces 
the  cutter  down,  turning  to  the  right  draws  it  up. 

The  long  lever,  immediately  beneath  the  cutter,  is 
for  adjusting  the  cutter  sidewise,  to  set  the  cutting 
edge  parallel  with  the  sole  or  face  of  plane.  The 
opening  in  the  sole  of  plane  is  called  the  throat. 
The  width  of  the  throat  is  regulated  by  aid  of  the 
eccentric  plate  under  the  brass  knob.  By  moving 
the  eccentric  plate  to  the  right  or  to  the  left  the 
throat  can  be  closed  or  opened  as  coarse  or  fine  work 
may  require.  A  single  turn  of  the  knob  will  loosen 
or  fasten  the  plate.  For  ordinary  work  the  throat 
should  be  about  TV  of  an  inch  wide.  For  cross- 
grained  wood,  the  space  should  be  as  small  as  will 
permit  of  free  passage  for  shavings.  If  throat  of 
plane  becomes  clogged,  take  it  apart,  never  attempt 
to  remove  chips  or  shavings  by  pushing  them  out. 

Try  Square. 

The  try-square  consists  of  a  thin  blade  of  steel 
with  parallel  edges,  fitted  and  riveted  in  and  at  right 
angles  to  the  stock.  The  stock  is  generally  a  piece 
of  rosewood  or  cast-iron  shorter  than  the  blade.  The 
size  of  squares  are  reckoned  by  the  length  in  inches 
of  the  blade. 

The  most  important  point  in  the  construction  of 
a  square  is  the  right  angle  between  the  stock  and 
blade.  Try-squares  are  very  frequently  ruined  by 


For  Grammar  Schools.  53 

using  them  to  drive  tacks,  or  brads,  and  by  dropping, 
which  "knocks  them  out  of  square." 

To  test  a  square  let  the  broad  side  of  the  blade 
rest  on  the  plane  surface  of  a  board,  and  the  stock 
against  a  perfectly  straight  edge.  Draw  a  fine  line 
across  the  board  and  along  the  outer  edge  of  the 
blade.  The  square  is  then  reversed,  the  stock  is 
placed  as  before,  and  t,he  edge  of  blade  is  placed 
close  to  the  line  previously  made.  Another  line  is 
then  drawn  along  the  edge  of  blade  as  before.  If 
this  line  is  perfectly  parallel  with  that  made  first,  the 
square  is  true. 

The  try-square  is  used  for  describing  right  angles, 
and  testing  the  truth  of  work.  The  square  was  re- 
garded in  ancient  times  as  the  sign  of  perfection. 

In  giving  the  application  and  uses,  of  the  square,  the 
teacher  might  depict  the  beauty  of  truth  in  every  relation 
in  life,  (i)  at  home,  (2)  in  school,  (3)  in  business.  Show 
how  embarrassment  and  loss  are  caused  1>y  hastiness  and 
carelessness  of  truth. 

Compasses. 

Is  an  instrument  for  describing  circles,  or  for 
measuring  figures,  distances  between  two  points,  etc. 
Also  called  dividers. 

Knife, 

The  pocket  knife  is  a  very  important  tool  and  one 
of  the  first  to  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  beginner. 
It  is,  therefore,  important  to  select  one  of  the  best 
quality,  and  it  should  have  two  blades. 


54  Manual  Training  Course 

The  knife,  which  requires  a  stiff  edge,  must  be  held 
when  sharpening  on  an  oilstone  at  an  angle  of  20° 
or  25°.  Should  the  blade  be  laid  flat  on  the  stone  the 
edge  is  made  too  thin,  and  consequently  the  edge  will 
appear  brittle  or  become  dull  very  quickly. 

The  joints  should  be  oiled  occasionally,  as  they 
are  liable  to  become  rough  and  hollow,  thereby  caus- 
ing the  points  of  the  blades  to  protrude. 

File. 

A  steel  instrument  for  smoothing  surfaces,  and 
having  raised  cutting  edges  (teeth)  made  by  the  in- 
dentions of  a  chisel. 

Files  are  mentioned  in  I  Samuel,  xiii :  21,  1093  B.  C. 
"  They  had  a  file  for  the  mattocks,  and  for  the  coulters, 
and  for  the  forks,  and  for  the  axes,  and  to  sharpen  the 
goads." 

Files  are  graded  by  shape, 'size,  and  by  fineness  of 
cut. 

The  shape  or  stvle  of  file  is  distinguished  by  cer- 
tain technical  names,  as,  for  instance,  flat,  round,  half- 
round,  three-square,  &c. 

The  terms  single  cut,  double  cut,  and  rasp  have  ref- 
erence to  the  character  of  the  teeth. 

The  terms  rough,  coarse,  bastard,  2nd  cut  and  smooth 
have  reference  only  to  the  coarseness  of  the  teeth. 

The  rough  and  coarse  are  adapted  to  files  used  upon 
soft  metals,  as  lead,  pewter,  &c.,  and,  to  some  extent, 
upon  wood. 


For  Grammar  Schools.  55 

Files  having  two  courses  of  chisel  cuts  crossing 
each  other  are  called  double  cut. 

The  length  of  files  is  always  measured  exclusively 
of  their  tang. 

The  file  selected  for  the  desk  top  outfit  is  known 
as  a  double  cut,  half  round. 

The  approximate  number  qf  cuts  in  an  inch  of  file 
varies  from  56,  in  the  4  inch  rough,  to  216  cuts  in  the 
4  inch  superfine. 

The  Back  Saw. 

This  saw  is  used  for  cutting  across  the  fibres,  and 
only  for  light,  fine  work.  To  stiffen  the  blade,  its 
upper  edge  is  enclosed  in  an  iron  back. 

The  handle  is  of  apple-wood. 

The  size  of  saw  teeth  is  expressed  by  the  number 
of  points  —  teeth  points  —  contained  in  an  inch. 

Cross-Cut  Saw. 

The  cross-cut  saw  is  designed  for  cutting  across 
the  fibres,  and  in  order  to  prevent  pinching  or  bind- 
ing, it  divides  each  fibre  in  two  places  at  once,  leaving 
a  path  or  "kerf"  for  the  blade  to  run  in  and  the  ma- 
terial to  fall  out  through. 

If  you  undertook  to  divide  a  board  in  two  cross- 
wise by  successive  knife-cuts,  you  would  soon  find 
the  necessity  for  having  a  groove  at  least  as  wide  as 
the  thickness  of  the  blade;  and  this  could  be  accom- 
plished only  by  severing  each  fibre  twice;  making 


56  Manual   Training  Course 

two  parallel  cuts  between  which  the  material  was 
removed  to  leave  the  kerf. 

Every  other  tooth  of  the  cross-cut  saw  is  beveled 
to  right  and  to  left  so  as  to  help  make  the  right  hand 
or  the  left  hand  score.  The  filing  should  be  so 
accurate  that  a  needle  could  be  slid  along  the  groove 
left  between  or  formed  by  the  beveled  tooth  edges. 

It  is  the  outside  edge  of  each  tooth  that  does  the 
cutting. 

Rip-Saw. 

The  rip-saw  is  used  for  cutting  in  the  direction  of 
the  length  of  the  fibres.  The  angle  of  the  teeth  is 
more  acute  than  that  of  the  cross-cut  saw,  and  filed 
straight  across,  or  when  filing  the  file  is  held  at  right 
angles  to  the  blade.  The  teeth  of  the  rip-saw  are  like 
a  series  of  narrow  chisels,  and  if  we  should  attempt 
to  use  it  as  a  cross-cut  saw  to  cut  across  a  thin  board 
it  would  tear  and  destroy  the  wood. 

History  of  the  Saw. 

Saws  of  the  bronze  age  have  been  discovered  in 
Germany  and  Denmark.  The  metal  was  cast  thin, 
and  probably  was  notched  on  the  edge  by  chipping 
and  grinding. 

Saws  of  the  stone  age  were  made  by  setting  flakes 
of  flint  in  wooden  handles  and  securing  with  mineral 
pitch.  The  saw  is  a  very  old  device,  as  old  as  a 
knife  with  a  ragged  edge. 

The  ancient  Egyptian  blade  was  of  bronze,  at- 


For  Grammar  Schools.  57 

tached  to  the  handles  by  leathern  thongs  and  was 
single  handed.  Some  of  the  blades,  however,  are 
set  into  the  handles  with  tangs,  like  our  case-knives. 

Japanese  saws  are  shaped  like  butchers'  cleavers. 
The  handle  is  flattish,  as  if  whittled  out  of  a  piece  of 
inch  board  ;  the  shank  of  the  saw  is  driven  into  the 
handle,  and  the  whole  is  secured  by  being  wrapped 
with  fine  split  cane.  The  metal  of  the  saw  is  about 
the  substance  of  our  saws,  but  the  teeth  are  nar- 
rower, giving  more  of  them  to  an  inch  and  much 
longer.  The  teeth  are  pointed  toward  the  handle. 
When  a  Japanese  wants  to  rip  a  plank,  he  places  it 
across  anything  which  will  elevate  the  end  a  few 
inches,  then  stands  on  the  wood  and  cuts  by  seizing 
the  cleaver-looking  saw  in  both  hands,  and  pulling  it 
toward  him,  working  it  by  short,  quick,  up-strokes. 

Formerly  the  larger  portion  of  our  saws  came 
from  Sheffield,  England,  but  Philadelphia,  Pittsburg, 
Cincinnati  and  other  places  make  them  of  the  best 
quality  and  from  American  steel  of  American  iron. 

Making  a  saw  involves  the  following  processes ; 

1.  Cutting  out  the  blade  from  the  sheet. 

2.  Toothing    with     a    press    and     appropriately 
formed  dies. 

3.  Hardening  by  plunging  while  heated  in  an  oil 
bath.     In  this  state  the  metal  is  extremely  brittle. 

4.  Tempering   and    straightening ;    the    latter   is 
effected  by  hammering  on  an  anvil  or  by  compress- 
ing  several    blades,    while    hot,   between    two    dies 
worked  by  a  hydraulic  press. 


58  Manual   Training  Course 

5.  Grinding  and  polishing  with  emery-powder. 

6.  Filing  and  setting  the  teeth. 

7.  Reheating  to  restore  the  elasticity  lost  in  tem- 
pering. 

8.  Removing   the    scale   by    immersion,    first    in 
dilute  acid,  and  afterwards  in  alkali  to  remove  the 
acid. 

9.  The  handle  is  attached  and  the  blade  tested. 

Brad  Awl. 

The  simplest  form  of  boring  tool  is  the  awl.  It 
consists  of  a  piece  of  small  steel  rod,  with  one  end 
fastened  in  a  wooden  handle,  and  the  other  doubly 
beveled  to  a  sharp  edge.  The  use  of  the  awl  is  to 
prepare  holes  for  the  admission  of  nails  and  screws. 

Its  greatest  drawback  is  the  ease  with  which 
the  awl  may  be  broken.  When  holes  are  to  be  bored 
with  the  brad-awl,  the  edge  should  be  placed  across 
the  grain  of  the  wood. 

Hammer. 

A  tool  for  driving  nails,  beating  metal  and  the 
like. 

The  hammer  selected  for  the  desk  top  is  known 
as  a  riveting  hammer.  It  is  used  by  both  metal  and 
wood  workers  for  light  work. 

Tools  of  metal,  of  which  the  hammer  was  among 
the  first,  must  have  been  in  use  for  many  centuries. 
Tubal  Cain,  the  descendant  in  the  sixth  generation 


For  Grammar  Schools.  59 

from  Cain,  was  an  "artificer  in  brass  and  iron";  cop- 
per, probably,  rather  than  brass.  Brass  and  bronze 
are  not  distinguished  from  each  other  by  name,  either 
in  Greek  or  Latin. 

The  first  form  was  perhaps  a  stone  fastened  to  a 
handle,  many  such  are  found  in  the  relics  of  the 
stone  age,  before  man  had  learned  the  use  of  metal. 

In  the  Bible  we  read  of  hammers  for  nails,  forg- 
ing, and  for  breaking  stone. 

Modern  hammers  are  of  many  shapes  and  kinds. 
The  parts  are  the  handle  and  head.  The  latter  has  an 
eye,  face,  peen,  or  claw. 

Nail  Set. 

The  nail-set,  or  punch  as  it  is  sometimes  called, 
is  simply  a  piece  of  tapering  steel,  used  with  the 
hammer  to  drive  the  heads  of  nails  below  the  surface 
•of  the  wood  they  are  in.  To  avoid  slipping,  the 
point  is  made  hollow.  Nail-sets  with  hollow  points 
are  the  best.  Several  sizes  are  made  to  suit  the 
various  nails. 

Chisel. 

An  edged  tool  for  cutting  wood.  It  is  operated 
by  striking  its  upper  end  with  a  mallet  or  by  press- 
ure. Mr.  Burton,  an  Englishman,  found  at  Thebes, 
and  deposited  in  the  British  Museum,  a  carpenter's 
basket  and  a  kit  of  tools  which  have  survived  their 
owner  some  thirty  centuries. 


60  Manual   Training  Course 

Chisels  of  early  Egypt  were  of  bronze,  the  handles 
of  tamarisk.  In  some  cases  the  blades  were  attached 
by  thongs  to  the  handles. 

The  knife  must  be  regarded  as  the  primary  tool, 
and  the  chisel  as  a  strong  knife  sharpened  and  pre- 
sented endwise. 

The  chisels  and  gouges  of  the  Tahitians  when 
first  discovered  were  of  bone,  generally  that  of  a 
man's  arm  between  the  wrist  and  elbow.  The  bone 
tools  disappeared  in  a  few  years  after  the  advent  of 
the  white  man. 

The  chisel  used  in  this  course  is  y%  inch  wide  and 
known  as  a  tang  firmer  chisel  and  should  be  used 
only  for  fine  work.  The  handle  is  made  of  apple- 
wood. 

Carpenters  use  other,  and  heavier  chisels,  one 
kind  is  known  as  the  socket  firmer,  and  the  other  as  a 
mortise  chisel.  The  socket-firmer  is  employed  in  all 
kinds  of  carpenter  work. 

The  mortise  Chisel  is  made  much  heavier  than  the 
socket  firmer,  and  is  used  in  connection  with  the 
mallet  for  making  mortises. 

Marking  Gauge. 

The  gauge  is  a  tool  for  marking  on  the  work  lines 
parallel  to  the  edge.  The  gauge  consists  of  two 
pieces  of  wood,  the  stem  or  beam  and  the  stock  or 
head  with  a  thumb-screw  in  the  latter,  which  when 
tightened,  holds  the  head  firmly  in  any  desired  posi- 


For   Grammar  Schools.  61 

tion  on  the  beam.  The  spur  is  a  piece  of  steel  wire 
fitted  in  the  beam,  the  cutting  or  marking  end  being 
filed  to  a  wedge,  the  side  farthest  from  the  head 
should  be  straight,  and  as  nearly  as  possible  parallel 
to  the  side  of  the  head.  The  inner  side  of  the  spur 
should  be  slightly  rounded.  When  both  sides  of  the 
spur  are  filed  straight  across  or  parallel  to  side  of 
the  head,  the  tendency  of  the  gauge  is  to  run  off  or 
make  poor  lines. 

With  a  properly  filed  and  adjusted  spur  the  gauge 
should  act  easily  and  make  clean  lines.  The  spur 
should  only  project  sufficiently  to  produce  a  line 
clear  enough  to  work  by,  otherwise  it  will  not  be 
suitable  for  accurate  work. 

Pliers. 

A  small  pair  of  pinchers  with  jaws  flat  on  the 
inner  side  (called  flat  jawed  pliers),  which  are  "file 
cut"  to  enable  them  to  take  fast  hold  of  small  pieces 
of  metal  to  be  filed,  bent,  etc. 

The  knife-like  edges  on  one  side  are  intended  for 
cutting  wire,  or  a  narrow  strip  of  thin  metal. 

Pliers  with  peculiarly  shaped  or  proportioned 
jaws  are  called  round-nosed  pliers,  long-nosed  pliers, 
cutting  pliers,  etc. 

Gimlet. 

The  gimlet  of  the  Greeks  had  the  cross-head  or 
handle  of  the  style  now  in  common  use.  The  earliest 
specimens  found,  are  of  the  hollow  pod  style,  with- 


62  Manual  Training  Course 

out  the  screw  point,  and  it  demanded  a  large  ex- 
penditure of  muscle.  In  course  of  time  the  screw 
point  was  added. 

The  twisted  or  spiral  form  of  gimlet  is  an  Ameri- 
can invention. 

The  screw  point  serves  to  give  a  hold  at  first,  and 
gradually  to  draw  the  tool  deeper  into  the  work.  In 
boring  holes  with  the  gimlet  near  the  edge  or  in  thin 
wood,  it  is  best  to  use  very  little  pressure,  and  to 
give  a  quick  movement  to  the  handle.  "  Crowding  " 
the  gimlet  is  very  likely  to  split  the  work. 

Clamp. 

A  device  for  temporarily  holding  the  parts  of  a 
piece  of  work  while  being  operated  upon.  Also  for 
holding  glued  joints  while  the  glue  is  hardening. 
The  style  of  clamp  used  in  desk  top  outfit  is  made  of 
malleable  iron  and  is  quite  strong. 

Sandpaper. 

This  is  a  stout  paper  coated  with  hot  glue  and 
then  sprinkled  with  sharp  sand  of  different  degrees 
of  fineness.  The  different  grades  are  designated  as 
ooo,  oo,  o,  ^,  i,  i^,  2,  2^/2,  and  3.  The  latter  num- 
ber is  very  coarse. 

Glasspaper  is  fine  kind  of  sandpaper  made  of 
powdered  glass. 


For   Grammar  Schools.  63 

NOTES  ON  WOODS  USED  IN  DESK  TOP 
COURSE, 

White  Pine. 

This  is  the  most  useful  and  indispensable  tree  of 
the  American  forests,  affording  a  timber  of  greatest 
value  for  many  uses,  as  for  finishing,  interior  work, 
doors,  sash,  blinds,  clapboards,  shingles,  and  is  used 
in  pattern  making  because  of  the  comparatively  small 
degree  to  which  it  shrinks  and  swells  owing  to  changes 
in  the  atmosphere. 

It  is  found  from  Newfoundland  to  the  Winnipeg 
River,  southward  through  the  northern  states  and 
along  the  Allegheny  Mountains  to  Georgia.  Its 
finest  growth  is  in  the  region  of  the  great  lakes. 

The  wood  is  soft,  light,  compact,  and  easily  worked. 
It  contains  very  little  resin. 

The  tall,  straight  trunks  of  the  pine  extend  up- 
wards perhaps  a  hundred  feet  to  a  limb,  thence  sky- 
ward, with  a  crown  of  dark  evergreen  foliage,  graceful 
and  majestic. 

Basswood  (Lime,  Linden). 

Basswood  is  found  throughout  a  wide  range  of 
the  United  States  and  Europe,  and  has  many  vari- 
eties. In  some  localities  it  is  called  linden,  and  lime- 
tree.  It  grows  to  a  magnificent  size,  bearing  smooth, 
heart-shaped  leaves,  and  having  fragrant  flowers 


64  Manual  Training  Course 

which  are  favorites  with  the  bees.  The  foliage  is 
dense,  and  in  Europe  it  is  used  very  extensively  for 
ornamental  planting. 

In  Russia  the  inner  bark  of  the  basswood  is  made 
into  textile  fabrics,  cordage,  and  the  like. 

The  wood  is  yellowish-white,  soft  and  light,  but 
moderately  close-grained  and  tough.  It  is  used  in 
cabinet  work  and  for  the  panels  of  carriages. 

Tulip  Tree  (Poplar,  White  Wood), 

This  wood  is  quite  variable  in  weight,  usually 
light,  soft,  stiff,  but  not  strong,  of  fine  texture  and 
yellowish  color;  the  wood  shrinks  considerably,  but 
seasons  without  much  injury,  works  and  stands  well. 
In  some  localities  it  is  used  for  siding,  for  panelling 
and  finishing  lumber  in  house,  car  and  ship  building, 
for  side-boards  and  panels  of  wagons  and  carriages : 
also  in  the  manufacture  of  furniture,  implements,  and 
machinery,  for  pump-logs,  and  almost  every  kind  of 
common  wooden  ware,  boxes,  drawers,  etc.  An  ideal 
wood  for  the  carver  and  toyman.  It  grows  to  a  large 
size,  and  is  found  from  New  England  to  Missouri  and 
southward  to  Florida. 

The  cucumber  tree  resembles  and  is  often  con- 
founded with  tulip  wood  in  the  markets. 

The  Ash, 

The  ash  is  a  rapid  grower,  and  is  found  in  almost 
all  our  broad-leaved  forests.  The  wood  is  heavy,  hard, 


For  Grammar  Schools.  65 

strong,  stiff,  quite  tough,  not  durable  in  contact  with 
soil,  straight-grained,  rough  on  the  split  surface,  and 
coarse  in  texture.  Takes  a  good  finish. 

In  carpentry  ash  is  used  for  finishing  lumber,  used 
in  shipbuilding,  in  the  construction  of  cars,  wagons, 
carriages,  etc. ;  in  the  manufacture  of  farm  imple- 
ments, machinery  and  furniture  of  all  kinds,  and  also 
for  barrels,  baskets,  oars,  and  ball-bats. 

The*  wood  of  second-growth  white  ash  has,  per- 
haps, no  equal  for  lightness,  elasticity  and  strength. 

The  black  ash  grows  chiefly  in  swamps  through- 
out the  eastern,  northern,  and  north-western  states. 
The  wood  is  not  so  valuable  as  that  of  the  white  ash. 

Cherry, 

The  lumber  furnishing  cherry  of  this  country, 
wild  black  cherry,  is  a  medium  sized  tree  scattered 
through  many  of  the  broad-leaved  woods  of  the  west- 
ern slope  of  the  Alleghenies,  and  is  also  found  from 
Michigan  to  Florida  and  west  to  Texas. 

In  a  rich  soil  it  grows  rapidly  and  forms  one  of 
the  most  valued  of  our  native  woods.  It  almost 
equals  mahogany,  which  it  in  some  degree  resembles 
when  darkened  by  age. 

It  is  chiefly  used  for  finishing  lumber  for  buildings, 
cars,  and  boats,  also  for  furniture. 

The  wood  is  heavy,  hard,  strong,  of  fine  texture, 
color  reddish  brown.  It  works  and  stands  well,  takes 
a  good  polish,  and  is  much  esteemed  for  its  beauty. 


66  Manual  Training   Course 

Black  Walnut. 

Walnut  wood  is  heavy,  hard,  strong-,  of  coarse 
texture ;  the  sapwood  is  whitish,  the  heartwood  choco- 
late-brown. It  works  and  stands  well,  takes  a  good 
polish,  is  quite  handsome,  and  has  been  for  a  long 
time  the  favorite  cabinet-wood  in  this  country.  Wal- 
nut, formerly  used  even  for  fencing  and  railroad  ties, 
has  become  scarce  and  too  costly  for  ordinary  pur- 
poses, and  is  to-day  used  largely  as  a  veneer,  for  inside 
finish  and  cabinet  work ;  also  in  turnery,  for  gunstocks, 
etc.  Black  walnut  is  a  large  tree,  with  stout  trunk, 
of  rapid  growth,  and  was  formerly  quite  abundant 
throughout  the  Allegheny  region,  occurring  from 
New  England  to  Texas  and  from  Michigan  to  Florida. 

Maple. 

Wood  heavy,  strong,  stiff,  and  tough,  of  fine  text- 
ure, frequently  wavy-grained,  this  giving  rise  to 
"curly"  and  "blister"  figure;  not  durable  in  the 
ground  or  otherwise  exposed.  Maple  is  creamy 
white,  with  shades  of  brown  in  the  heart,  wears 
smoothly  and  takes  a  fine  polish.  The  wood  is  used 
for  ceiling,  flooring,  pannelling,  and  other  finishing- 
lumber  in  house,  ship,  and  car  construction;  it  is 
used  for  the  keels  of  boats  and  ships,  in  the  manu- 
facture of  implements  and  machinery,  and  for  furni- 
ture. Maple  is  also  used  for  shoe  lasts  and  other 
form-blocks,  for  shoe-pegs,  for  piano  actions,  school 
apparatus,  for  wood  type  in  show-bill  printing,  tool 


For  Grammar  Schools.  67 

handles,  in  wood  carving  and  turnery.     The  maples 
are  medium-sized  trees  and  of  fairly  rapid  growth. 

The  sugar-maple  is  sometimes  called  hard-maple 
and  rock-maple.  The  silver  maple  is  often  called 
soft-maple.  The  wood  of  this  tree  is  lighter,  softer 
and  inferior  to  hard-maple. 


HISTORY  OF  WOOD   SCREWS. 


According  to  "  Tomlinson's  Cyclopedia  "  volume 
IV,  1852,  "the  blanks  for  (wood)  screws  were  for- 
merly forged  by  the  nail  makers,  they  being  nearly 
the  same  as  the  countersunk  clout  nails,  except  that 
the  ends  are  not  pointed.  The  blanks  were  next 
made  out  of  round  rolled  iron  cut  to  the  required 
lengths,  the  heads  being  formed  by  pinching  them 
while  red-hot  between  a  pair  of  dies,  and  the  threads 
were  cut  by  means  of  a  file." 

The  screws  referred  to  in  the  foregoing  were 
•doubtless  blunt-pointed,  but  gimlet-pointed  screws 
were  undoubtedly  made  as  early  as  1755. 

"Gimlet-Pointed  Wood  Screws.— Mechanics  of 
adult  age  can  easily  remember  when  gimlet-pointed 
screws  came  into  use,  within  the  last  thirty  years, 
superseding  the  blunt  pointed  ones  before  used,  and 
the  former  have  been  considered  a  modern  inven- 
tion. But  we  have  seen  this  morning  a  half  dozen 
.screws  with  excellent  gimlet  points  which  were  taken 


68 


Manual  Training  Course 


from  an  old  piano  and  bear  unmistakable  evidences 
of  age  and  of  having  been  made  before  screws 
were  made  by  machinery.  The  piano  is  inscribed 
'Jacobus  Kirckman,  Fecit,  Londini,  1755'  and  the 
screws  are  doubtless  of  that  date.  The  most  curious 
point  in  the  case  is  that  after  such  screws  as  these 
had  once  been  made  mechanics  should  have  gone  on 
using  square  pointed  screws  for  nearly  a  century. — 
(  Worcester  Gazette?) " 

The  earliest  known  pub- 
lic exhibit  of  gimlet-pointed 
wood  screws  in  this  country 
was  that  on  a  sample  card  of 
wood  screws  made  by  Japy 
Freres,  Beaucourt,  France, 
imported  by  Messrs.  Fish, 
Grinnell  &  Co.,  for  the  late 
Jonathan  Congdon,  Esq., 
hardware  merchant,  of  Pro- 
vidence, R.I.  These  screws 
may  have  been  produced 
in  France  upon  American 
machinery,  which  was  sent 
in  1835  from  Poughkeepsie, 


BLUNT  POINTED  .  T     „  T  T, 

SCREW.        N.  \  .,  to  Japy  rreres. 


GIMLET-POINTED 
SCREW. 


In  United  States  patent  No.  154,  of  March  30,. 
1837,  granted  Sloat  (of  Ramapo,  New  York),  and 
Springsteen  (of  Poughkeepsie,  New  York),  for  a 


For  Grammar  ScJwols.  69 

wood  screw  threading  machine,  are  the  following 
words  :  "  So  that  the  screw  may  be  made  a  gradual 
taper  or  all  the  way  of  a  size,  or  give  it  an  acute 
taper  at  the  point,  making  what  we  call  '  gimlet 
points '  or  any  other  shape  desired." 

It  may,  therefore,  be  conclusively  stated  that  gim1- 
let-pointed  screws  are  extremely  old,  and  that  the 
inventor  of  them  has  never  as  yet  been  named, 
although  many  special  forms  of  gimlet  points  for 
screws  have  been  invented  and  patented  in  the  United 
States  and  elsewhere  during  the  past  sixty  years. 


NAILS. 


In  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  nails 
were  ordinarily  manufactured  by  hand  forging, 
usually  by  women  and  children. 

Nail  machinery  originated  and  developed  chiefly 
in  the  United  States.  This  was  a  natural  result  of 
the  universal  use  of  wood  for  buildings. 

In  the  old  hand-working  days  some  of  the  nail- 
makers  became,  through  constant  practice,  very 
expert  at  the  trade.  It  is  on  record  that  a  workman 
in  Smethwick,  England,  made  in  two  weeks  40800 
nails.  To  accomplish  this  wonderful  feat  he  had  to 
heat  his  nail  iron  42836  times,  to  weld  together  large 
numbers  of  short  bits  of  iron  and  to  strike  each  nail 
25  blows. 


/o  Manual  Training  Course 

Steel  wire  nails  which  have  taken  the  place  of  cut 
nails  are  a  French  invention.  They  have  great  hold- 
ing power,  though  they  are  light  and  smooth. 

The  old  English  term  "  penny,"  as  applied  to  nails, 
is  understood  to  mean  a  certain  number  of  pounds  to 
the  thousand  nails,  as,  for  example,  "six  penny" 
means  6  pounds  to  the  thousand  nails ;  "  ten  penny  " 
means  10  pounds  to  the  thousand  nails.  The  term 
"  penny  "  when  used  to  mark  the  size  of  nails  is  sup- 
posed to  be  a  corruption  of  the  word  "  pound." 


For  Grammar  Schools. 


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CONTENTS. 


Description  of  the  Desk  Top,    3-5 

Introduction,  ...     6-7 

Awl,  -  58 

Ash,  -       64 

Basswood,         -  -         -         -  63 

Back  Saw,  55 

Black  Walnut,  -  66 

Cherry,          -  -         -         -       65 

Chisel.  -  59 

"     Tang  and  Socket  Firmer,  48 

Clamp,      -         -  -         -         -  62 

Compasses,   -  -        -        -53 

Cross-cut  Saw,  -  55 
Emery  Cloth, 

File,  '  -         -         -  48 

Files,    -  54 

Gimlet,            '-  •   -         -         -  61 

Glasspaper,  62 

Glue, 8 

Hammer,      -  -       58 

Knife,       -  -  53 

Lead  Pencil,  8 


Lumber,  How  to  order,  -     7 

Marking  Gauge,             -  -       60 

Maple,               -         -         -  -  66 

Measuring  Rule,  49 

Nail  Set,  -  59 

Nails,  How  to  order,  -         8 

"    Number  per  Pound,  -  71 

Nails,  -       69 

Planes,     ...  -  50 

Plane,     Description      of  the 

Block,    -  50-52 

Pliers, 61 

Pine,     -                           -  -       63 

Poplar,     -         -         -         -  -  64 

Rip  Saw,                -         -  -       56 

Rust  (see  Emery  Cloth),  -     8 

Sandpaper,  -       62 
....     8 

Screws,  How  to  order,  -         8 

Screw,  History  of  the,       -  67-69 

Saw,  History  of  the,     -  56-58 

Try  Square,      -         -         -  -  52 


Model  I.  Flower  Pot  Stand, 

II.  A  Form, 

III.  A  Frame  for  a  Vine,     - 

IV.  Hexagonal  Back  for  a  Calendar, 
V.  Bandilore, 

VI.  Centering  Gauge,     - 

VII.  Plumb- Rule, 

VIII.  Bench  Hook, 

IX.  Window  Screen, 

X.  Key  Board,       .... 

XI.  Nail  Box,      - 

XII.  Winding  Strips, 

XIII.  Wall  Bracket, 

XIV.  30°  and  60°  Triangle, 

XV.  45°  Triangle, 

XVI.  T- Square,         .... 

XVII.  A  Fancy  Box,       - 

XVIII.  Sun  Dial, 


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UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 


A     000  037  276     3 


